By George Donaghey,
London Metropolitan University.
This paper is an amalgamation of historical and contemporary criminological theory, with the aim of creating connections throughout time periods to define the causes of county lines in both a sociological and economic context. Taking the nurture side of Nature vs Nurture discussions, both peer and environmental interactions shape a person into a deviant being; they are who their social and ecological environment is. If these individuals are surrounded by economic deprivation, the strain (to achieve financial success) they experience is accentuated by a lack of opportunity. County lines is proved here to be that escape from poverty: a business model built out of exploitation and the manipulation of an individual’s introspective moral code, which has now been displaced by the deinstitutionalisation of migration and isolation. Even looking at labelling theories in a historical context, impoverished people have never been encouraged to be conformists to common law. They are instead inspired to take life by the reins, and manipulate their national environment for their own financial gain, with complete disregard to human rights and modern slavery legislation, and to fight against social norms that have hindered them. Clamping down on these regulations and encouraging multi-agency work to prevent the exploitation of children, would create a better policing framework to tackle county lines at a national scale. This would fix legislative problems, but not the true cause: disproportionate, relative deprivation. It is clear that redistribution of wealth and greater support for those experiencing poverty would practically eliminate the need to deviate into county lines. This would stop child exploitation in organised crime groups, and alleviate the population of a growing drug use and distribution epidemic.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.16911487
By Megan Byford,
Leeds Beckett University.
Trauma exposure amongst the prison population is extremely high, with research finding over 80% of prisoners report experiencing at least one adverse childhood experience (Ford et al., 2020. In comparison, research in the general population finds just under half of participants report experiencing no adversities in their childhood (Witt et al., 2019). Inside the prison environment, which is described to be dangerously depriving (Haney, 2012), trauma can manifest itself in behaviours that many label as ‘maladaptive’ (Armour, 2012). Adopting a critical literature review, this research thematically found these behaviours include but are not limited to: mental health, drug use, self-harm, self-inflicted deaths, and inmate-on-inmate assaults. Such behaviour appears to be extremely high, for example almost 70% of incarcerated women felt their mental health had worsened during their time in prison (Augsburger et al., 2022). This is consistent with the combined model, which contends the prison environment can exacerbate imported experiences of trauma in the depriving prison environment (Dye, 2010). The implementation of trauma-informed practices in prisons is assessed to determine whether they can prevent re-traumatising people in prison. Using an array of research, including findings from Massachusetts Correctional Institution Framingham, this research finds trauma-informed practices have the potential to perform very successfully, but not without radical change (Benedict and CORE Associates, 2014; Levenson and Willis, 2018). This research suggests this radical change must focus on funding, leadership, staff turnover, and overcrowding in order for trauma-informed practices to succeed in preventing re-traumatising those who live and work inside prisons (Uglean, 2024; Jewkes et al., 2019).
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.16911337
By Evelina Pabricaite,
London Metropolitan University.
The internet plays a key role in radicalisation by connecting like-minded individuals, spreading extremist ideologies, and enabling online recruitment and incitement to real-world violence. This dissertation critically examines the shift of radicalisation from physical to digital spaces, emphasising importance of the social media, the dark web, and algorithmic amplification of extremist content. It explores the psychological models, sociological factors, emotional and behavioural patterns, that make individuals vulnerable in online environments. The study also evaluates UK de-radicalisation initiatives, particularly Prevent and Channel, noting their strengths in early intervention but highlighting their limitations in addressing the complex nature of online radicalisation.
Online radicalisation is identified as a multifaceted problem shaped by psychological, social, and political factors, as well as the decentralised and obscure structure of digital platforms. These dynamics complicate regulation and the detection of extremist content, particularly on platforms valuing anonymity or operating outside traditional oversight.
This literature-based study highlights the interplay between online and offline radicalisation, the challenges of current counter-extremism strategies, and the urgent need for more nuanced, interdisciplinary approaches to prevention and intervention.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.16654211